THE DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN OF SEISMIC RESEACH.
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of New School of Architecture and Design
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In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for a Degree of Master of Architecture
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by
Christian Prajoux
San Diego, 2012
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©2012
Christian Prajoux
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THE DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN OF SEISMIC AND TESTING FACILITY
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THE DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN OF SEISMIC AND TESTING FACILITY
____________________________________________
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of New School of Architecture and Design
____________________________________________
by
Christian Prajoux
Approved by:
______________________________________________________________________________
Federico Von Borstel Ph.D. Date
______________________________________________________________________________
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………….…………………………… 2
Statement of the Problem………………………………… …………………………….…….. 3
Background of the Problem…………………………………………………………………… 5
Summary………………………………………………..………………………………………19
2. THESIS
Thesis Statement……………………………………………………………………………….21
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………… 22
Importance of the Study………………………………… …………………………………. 28
Scope of the Study……………………………………………………………………………. 37
Denitions……………………………………………….……………………………………. 30
Summary………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………… 32
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………34
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my family, friends and my country (USA, Chile) for the support throughout my graduate studies, for their patience, and trust.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the faculty at the New School of Architecture and Design for their valuable assistance in making this research possible.
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Seismic is everyday news, affecting societies all over the world and how to create a better design for the people investing in a house or apartment, no just as a value grow over a period of time, but also as a secure investment against earthquakes and other disaster (Design concept for buildings and houses in the earthquake zone.) As prime design professionals, architects have a unique role in design and construction. The architect is often the only professional with an overall view of all aspects of the design and construction process. The architect serves the client, brings in the structural engineer and other engineering specialties, works closely with the contractor, and ideally, orchestrates the project to facilitate performance and achieve good results. Architects are therefore in a crucial position to influence the seismic safety of structures.
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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The opportunity to influence a project’s quality in the earliest phases of the design period, after which it drops precipitously. Initial decisions on a project’s structural concepts can do much to determine its ultimate seismic resistance, for better or worse. Thus decisions early in the design period may commit a project to a building configuration or design concept that makes effective lateral-force resistance difficult to achieve. Accordingly, close collaboration from the outset between the architect and structural engineer—as well as the mechanical and electrical engineers—is highly desirable. Economic constraints on design and construction practices may result in structures that comply with codes but are nevertheless susceptible to significant damage. They may cause many severe casualties when an earthquake occurs. Even if no lives are lost, poorly performing buildings and their contents can suffer major damage, which can be devastating to occupants, e.g., tenants or businesses forced to vacate or suspend operations. In the prevailing circumstances, the fees public and private owners appear willing to pay for architectural engineering work are often insufficient to provide the levels of professional service needed for adequate attention to seismic resistance. Consequently, at the outset the buyer or owner should understand the relationship between design and construction costs, and the levels of quality control and building reliability being purchased with the fees budgeted. While
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improving building performance is likely to mean some increase in construction and design costs, these added expenses may not be significantly more than those of a
structure built to minimal seismic standards. Furthermore, typical kinds of earthquake damage are controllable for very little added expense. In short, owners’ decisions to go for the lowest fee in design contract negotiations may save little at the beginning, while proving very costly later in the event of a damaging earthquake.
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BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM
Architects have many opportunities to advocate the creation of a more seismically safe environment, help identify existing earthquake hazards, and avoid the creation of new ones. They can pursue these objectives in cooperation with other design and construction professionals, community organizations, schools, and public and business leaders. Their efforts might include advocacy of earthquake safety in public forums, in addition to encouraging design and construction projects that embody improved standards of lateral-force resistance.
Architects are frequently involved in the seismic strengthening of existing buildings—many of which are older structures, some with architectural merit, historic character, or long term associations with community life. Where possible, these values should be preserved, and architects can help by mediating between the needs of structural retrofit technology and the goals of historic and architectural preservation. Thus they are in a position to promote improved seismic safety, while also seeking to maintain intrinsic values that might be lost. Approaches to seismic hazard abatement depend on a community’s physical environment, and its social, economic and political circumstances. Influential factors include the prevalence of hazardous buildings, the availability of alternative affordable housing, the demography and composition of the community, economic pressures for redevelopment, and the ability to obtain economic
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and fiscal resources to help pay for mitigation of earthquake hazards. Architects can help formulate appropriate mitigation strategies for their communities. First, they can work as advocates for sensible and prudent seismic safety programs. Second, they can help address the needs of displaced residents for affordable housing or alternative commercial space. Third, they can promote mitigation plans that respect and preserve the historic fabric of the community through architecturally sensitive retrofit designs. Fourth, they can join in multidisciplinary research efforts to advance new technologies and directions in earthquake hazard mitigation activities. To capitalize on these many opportunities for playing more effective roles, and to strengthen the profession’s community and educational leadership, the California Council, American Institute of Architects (CCAIA) should promote a strengthening of architects’ earthquake awareness and knowledge of seismic design considerations.
The seismic resistance of buildings is a major concern in a state prone to earthquakes. The conceptual stages of a building’s design involve decisions by the design team and owner that can do much to determine a structure’s seismic performance. Accordingly, owners, architects and engineers should collaborate closely, starting at the very beginning of the design process. A good grasp of seismic design considerations, plus good architect and engineer teamwork, can lead to the construction of buildings with enhanced resistance to the lateral forces of earthquakes. As things stand, some architects may need to improve their understanding of design requirements for
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improved seismic resistance. Furthermore, working relationships among owners, architects and engineers may not be sufficiently close. We therefore recommend
steps to improve seismic design practice and to promote strengthened architect-engineer collaboration.
Architects and engineers, as well as the public, have an interest in close professional interaction between the members of design teams. Adapting model processes of interaction to specific projects, and using common guidelines highlighting key seismic design issues needing resolution, may greatly facilitate communication within architect-engineer design teams.
What about codes?
People are attributing the low number of casualties in Chile to a wealthier society and strict building codes. Haiti’s earthquake wasn’t as severe, but hundreds of thousands died because structures that weren’t built as well collapsed.
The libertarian position of building codes is that they are an intrusion into the private matters of citizens. But in this case, it seems that the requirement to build robust structures is an overall positive benefit to society.
Tectonics
Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, long thought to be a continuous, unbroken, crust is
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actually a fluid mosaic of many irregular rigid segments, or plates. Comprised
primarily of cool, solid rock 4 to 40 miles thick,* these enormous blocks of Earth’s crust vary in size and shape, and have definite borders that cut through continents and oceans alike. *[Oceanic crust is much thinner and more dense than continental, or terrestrial crust].
There are nine large plates and a number of smaller plates. While most plates are comprised of both continental and oceanic crust the giant Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic, and the tiny Turkish-Aegean Plate is entirely land. Of the nine major plates, six are named for the continents embedded in them: the North American, South American, Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, and Antarctic. The other three are oceanic plates: the Pacific, Nazca, and Cocos.
How Plates Move
Powered by forces originating in Earth’s radioactive, solid iron inner core, these tectonic plates move ponderously about at varying speeds and in different directions atop a layer of much hotter, softer, more malleable rock called the athenosphere. Because of
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the high temperatures and immense pressures found here, the uppermost part of the athenosphere is deformed and flows almost plastically just beneath the Earth’s surface. This characteristic of the athenosphere to flow allows the plates to inch along on their endless journeys around the surface of the earth, moving no faster than human fingernails grow. One idea that might explain the ability of the athenosphere to flow is the idea of convection currents. When mantle rocks near the radioactive core are heated, they become less dense than the cooler, upper mantle rocks. These warmer rocks rise while the cooler rocks sink, creating slow, vertical currents within the mantle (these convection currents move mantle rocks only a few centimeters a year). This movement of warmer and cooler mantle rocks, in turn, creates pockets of circulation within the mantle called convection cells. The circulation of these convection cells could very well be the driving force behind the movement of tectonic plates over the athenosphere.
The relative small size of the numerous other plates neither diminishes their significance, nor their impact on the surface activity of the planet. The jostling of the tiny Juan de Fuca Plate, for example, sandwiched between the Pacific and North American Plate near the state of Washington, is largely responsible for the frequent tremors and periodic volcanic eruptions in that region of the country.
Plate Boundaries
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There are three primary types of Tectonic Plate boundaries: Divergent boundaries;
Convergent boundaries; and Transform boundaries. As the giant plates move, diverging [pulling apart] or converging [coming together] along their borders, tremendous energies are unleashed resulting in tremors that transform Earth’s surface. While all the plates appear to be moving at different relative speeds and independently of each other, the whole jigsaw puzzle of plates is interconnected. No single plate can move without affecting others, and the activity of one can influence another thousands of miles away. For example, as the Atlantic Ocean grows wider with the spreading of the African Plate away from the South American Plate, the Pacific sea floor is being consumed in deep subduction trenches over ten thousand miles away.
Divergent Boundaries
At divergent boundaries new crust is created as or more plates pull away from each other. Oceans are born and grow wider where plates diverge or pull apart. As seen below, when a diverging boundary occurs on land a ‘rift’, or separation will arise and over time that mass of land will break apart into distinct land masses and the surrounding water will fill the space between them. Iceland offers scientists a
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natural laboratory for studying – on land – the processes that occur along submerged parts of a divergent boundary. Iceland is splitting along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge – a divergent boundary between the North American and Eurasian Plates. As North America moves westward and Eurasia eastward, new crust is created on both sides of the diverging boundary. While the creation of new crust adds mass to Iceland on both sides of the boundary, it also creates a rift along the boundary. Iceland will inevitably break apart into two separate land masses at some point in the future, as the Atlantic waters eventually rush in to fill the widening and deepening space between.
Convergent Boundaries
Here crust is destroyed and recycled back into the interior of the Earth as one plate dives under another. These are known as Subduction Zones – mountains and volcanoes are often found where plates converge. There are 3 types of convergent boundaries: Oceanic-Continental Convergence; Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence; and Continental-Continental Convergence.
When an oceanic plate pushes into and subducts under a continental plate, the overriding continental plate is lifted up and a
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mountain range is created. Even though the oceanic plate as a whole sinks smoothly and continuously into the subduction trench, the deepest part of the subducting plate breaks into smaller pieces.
These smaller pieces become locked in place for long periods of time before moving suddenly and generating large earthquakes. Such earthquakes are often accompanied by uplift of the land by as much as a few meters.
When two oceanic plates converge one is usually subducted under the other and in the process a deep oceanic trench is formed. The Marianas Trench, for example, is a deep trench created as the result of the Philippine Plate subducting under the Pacific Plate.
Oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also results in the formation of undersea volcanoes. Over millions of years, however, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.
When two continents meet head-on, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are
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relatively light and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion. Instead, the crust tends to buckle and be pushed upward or sideways. The collision of India into Asia 50 million years ago caused the Eurasian Plate to crumple up and override the Indian Plate. After the collision, the slow continuous convergence of the two plates over millions of years pushed up the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau to their present heights. Most of this growth occurred during the past 10 million years.
Transform-Fault Boundaries are where two plates are sliding horizontally past one another. These are also known as transform boundaries or more commonly as faults. Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor. They commonly offset active spreading ridges, producing zig-zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow earthquakes. A few, however, occur on land. The San Andreas fault zone in California is a transform fault that connects the East Pacific Rise, a divergent boundary to the south, with the South Gorda — Juan de Fuca — Explorer Ridge, another divergent boundary to the north. The San Andreas is one of the few transform faults exposed on land. The San Andreas fault zone, which is about 1,300 km long and in places tens of kilometers wide, slices through two thirds of the length of California. Along it, the Pacific Plate has been grinding horizontally past the North
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American Plate for 10 million years, at an average rate of about five cm/yr.
Land on the west side of the fault zone (on the Pacific Plate) is moving in a northwesterly direction relative to the land on the east side of the fault zone (on the North American Plate).
Nazca Plate and South America.
The South America arc extends over 7,000 km from the Chilean margin triple junction offshore of southern Chile, north along the western coast of South America, to its intersection with the Panama fracture zone offshore the south coast of Panama in Central America. It marks the plate boundary between the subducting Nazca plate and the South America plate, the region where the oceanic crust and lithosphere of the Nazca plate begin their descent into the mantle beneath South America. The convergence associated with this subduction process is responsible for the uplift of the Andes Mountains, and for the active volcanic chain present along much of this deformation front. Relative to a fixed South America plate, the Nazca plate moves slightly north of eastwards at a rate varying from approximately 80 mm/yr in the south to approximately 70 mm/yr in the north.
Subduction zones such as the South America arc are geologically complex and generate numerous earthquakes from a variety of tectonic processes that cause deformation of the western edge of South America. Crustal deformation and subsequent mountain
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building in the overriding South America plate generate shallow earthquakes. Slip
along the dipping interface between the two plates generates frequent and often large interplate earthquakes between depths of approximately 10 and 50-60 km. Since 1900 numerous magnitude 8 or greater earthquakes have occurred on the interface between the Nazca and South America plates, including the 1960 M9.5 earthquake in southern Chile, the largest instrumentally recorded earthquake in the world. Earthquakes can also be generated to depths greater than 600 km from internal deformation of the subducting Nazca plate. Although the rate of subduction varies little along the entire subduction zone, there are complex changes in geologic processes along the subduction zone that dramatically influence volcanic activity, earthquake generation and occurrence. For example, an extended zone of crustal seismicity in central-northern Argentina highlight a well-known flat-slab region of this subduction zone, where the Nazca plate moves horizontally for several hundred kilometers before continuing its descent into the mantle. This transition in slab structure is coincident with a marked break in the Andes volcanic chain.
To enhance performance, all the principal parties—designers, owners, contractors, and sub-contractors should clearly understand
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the scope of design work involved in construction projects, and the assignment of responsibilities and tasks. Agreement should be reached on the budgeting of adequate fees to pay for the necessary services. Scope-of-work agreements seek to allocate and assign tasks properly, and to budget adequate fees to do what is needed. Lack of agreement early in a project’s life may increase the likelihood of omitting tasks, budgeting insufficient funds for necessary design services, or making other compromises that can adversely affect building quality and seismic performance. In negotiating such agreements, architects and engineers are encouraged to educate owners on the benefits of retaining design teams to observe construction and review implementation of design, in the interest of achieving good structural results through effective quality control. Concern about the inadequacy of the national.
Architectural examination in testing on seismic design prompted California authorities to prepare and administer their own state test. The new California exam was specially formulated to include seismic concerns that architects designing in earthquake regions should know about.
The exam specifications were rewritten to ensure inclusion of questions demonstrating that those admitted to the profession qualify for a minimum standard of seismic practice In addition to encouraging use of consistent documentation and procedures, some professions use organizational peer reviews or performance audits to evaluate the methods and procedures of individual practitioners and firms. Project-specific peer
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reviews may also consider the design and other features of individual projects.
In a typical design profession organizational peer review, several experienced architects or engineers spend several days studying a participant firm’s stated policies and procedures, and comparing them to what is actually being done. Because they are effective in improving standards of practice, such organizational peer reviews ought to be used more widely by the design professions.
Description of Study
From Monday 16 April, a five story building will be subjected to several earthquakes -27 / F, between them-, on the largest U.S. shake table as part of a mega project between NEES and UCSD. The construction has been enabled as a hospital, and has a seismic isolation system designed by SIRVE´S engineers, Henry Sady and Andrés Jacobsen, who will attend the test series.
This is the biggest test of seismic engineering makes in the Unites States in recent years, and it´s an event of great significance for the global and Chilean earthquake engineering. It is a major project between the UCSD (University of San Diego, California) and NEES (Network for
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Earthquake Engineering Simulation), and that has meant the pre construction LHPOST (Large High Performance Outdoor Shake Table), the largest shaking table built so far in the U.S., and only surpassed in size by the Japanese installations. Built in 2004, ten miles east of the main campus of the University of California, San Diego, is part of an ambitious program funded by the NEES and NSF (National Science Foundation).
The structure will be tested on this major 7.6 meter wide and 12.2 meter long shake table, the largest built so far in the U.S., and only surpassed in size by the Japanese installations. Meanwhile, the Chilean company VULCO is the manufacturer of the 4 elastomeric isolators that will support the structure. “What’s interesting –explains Henry Sady, Head of the team of SIRVE- is that not only will the performance of the structure in the event of a severe earthquake be tested. This building will also be provided with interior equipment, which will make it possible to review several parameters concerning the behavior of non-structural elements and components”.
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SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the topic of interest my thesis project, and describes the cause of earthquakes in Chile and around the world, and the necessity of a testing facility for a continuous research of seismic activities that have been so frequent the last few years that affect many lives, investment and human resources.
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CHAPTER 2
THESIS STATEMENT
Earthquakes and seismic activity which are caused by shifts in Tectonic plates at fault lines have many effects and impacts not only including those on buildings, but also biological, and geographical. This thesis seek to design a seismic facility that allows research, and a study environment for engineers, teachers, scientists, and students,architects; in places such as Chile and other countries bordering the Pacific ocean to take advantage of the experimentations in materials, design , and advances for construction, and architecture.
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The following factors affect and are affected by the design of the building. It is important that understands these factors and deal with them prudently in the design phase, materials, and safety.
Facility Design
Conform to local building codes providing “Life Safety,” meaning that the building may collapse eventually but not during the earthquake.
Design for repairable structural damage, required evacuation of the building, and acceptable loss of business for stipulated number of days.
Design for repairable nonstructural damage, partial or full evacuation, and acceptable
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loss of business for stipulated number of days due to repair.
Design for repairable structural damage, no evacuation required, and acceptable loss of business for stipulated number of days due to repair.
No structural damage, repairable nonstructural damage, no evacuation, and acceptable loss of business for stipulated number of days due to repair.
No structural or nonstructural damage, and no loss of business caused by either (excluding damage to tenants’ own equipment such as file cabinets, bookshelves, furniture, office equipment etc. if not properly anchored).
Torsion: Objects and buildings have a center of mass, a point by which the object (building) can be balanced without rotation occurring
Damping: Buildings in general are poor resonators to dynamic shock and dissipate vibration by absorbing it. Damping is a rate at which natural vibration is absorbed.
Ductility: Ductility is the characteristic of a material (such as steel) to bend, flex, or move, but fails only after considerable deformation has occurred.
Strength and Stiffness: Strength is a property of a material to resist and bear applied forces within a safe limit.
Building Configuration: This term defines a building’s size and shape, and structural
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and nonstructural elements. Building configuration determines the way seismic forces are distributed within the structure, their relative magnitude, and problematic design concerns.
Base Isolation: This seismic design strategy involves separating the building from the foundation and acts to absorb shock. As the ground moves, the building moves at a slower pace because the isolators dissipate a large part of the shock. The building must be designed to act as a unit, or “rigid box”, of appropriate height (to avoid overturning) and have flexible utility connections to accommodate movement at its base. Base Isolation is easiest to incorporate in the design of new construction. Existing buildings may require alterations to be made more rigid to move as a unit with foundations separated from the superstructure to insert the Base Isolators. Additional space (a “moat”) must be provided for horizontal displacement (the whole building will move back and forth a whole foot or more). Base Isolation retrofit is a costly operation that is most commonly appropriate in high asset value facilities and may require partial or the full removal of building occupants during installation.
The materials used for Elastomeric Isolators are natural rubber, high-damping rubber, or another elastomer in combination with metal parts. Frictive Isolators are also used
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and are made primarily of metal parts. A building’s seismic behavior is strongly influenced by the nature of the perimeter design. If there is wide variation in strength and stiffness around the perimeter, the center of mass will not coincide with the center of resistance, and torsional forces will tend to cause the building to rotate around the center of resistance.(Arnold, 1982: 73)
Options For Improving Architectural Seismic Design Practice.
1. Participate in continuing education programs, with special attention to seismic design and performance.
2. Participate in post-earthquake site visits to examine damage and study patterns of structural behavior.
3. Participate in the development of seismic codes and guidelines, work on code committees, and promote the use of design guidelines.
4. Work with structural engineers who are experienced in seismic design.
5. Ensure that conceptual and schematic designs are developed with joint architect/engineer participation.
6. Develop a scope-of-work definition (a division of tasks between architect, engineer
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and builder) for incorporation in each architect/engineer contract.
Costs and economic pressures tend to restrict the time made available for design. Working within limited budgets, architects and engineers, while following customary practice, may nevertheless leave some design tasks to engineers employed by contractors or vendors (e.g., precast cladding panels, windows, stairs, and elevators). At times, unless carefully monitored, this can reduce building quality and performance to levels that may be less than desirable with respect to seismic safety.
Materials
Seismic design objectives can greatly influence the selection of the most appropriate structural system and related building systems for the project. Some construction type options, and corresponding seismic properties, are:
Wood or timber frame (good energy absorption, light weight, framing connections are critical).
Reinforced masonry walls (good energy absorption if walls and floors are well integrated; proportion of spandrels and piers are critical to avoid cracking)
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Reinforced concrete walls (good energy absorption if walls and floors well integrated; proportion of spandrels and piers are critical to avoid cracking)
Steel frame with masonry fill-in walls (good energy absorption if bay sizes are small and building plan is uniform)
Steel frame, braced (extensive bracing, detailing, and proportions are important)
Steel frame, moment-resisting (good energy absorption, connections are critical)
Steel frame, eccentrically braced (excellent energy absorption, connections are critical)
Pre-cast concrete frame (poor performer without special energy absorbing connections)
Safety
Many building codes and governmental standards exist pertaining to design and construction for seismic hazard mitigation. As previously mentioned, building code requirements are primarily prescriptive and define seismic zones and minimum safety factors to “design to.” Codes pertaining to seismic requirements may be local, state, or regional building codes or amendments and should be researched thoroughly by the design professional.
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IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
The importance of the design of a seismic testing facility of this study is to identify ways architects might improve the seismic resistance of buildings they design.
Identify the kinds of relationships between architects and structural engineers that might promote improvements in seismic design. Consider how relationships among design professionals, clients, builders, developers and others can facilitate improvements in structural safety.
Consider roles of architects in the post-earthquake evaluation of structures.
Identify educational needs with respect to seismic concerns and building performance in earthquakes.
This research facility address safety, materials and facility design. The result is to have access to information, testing and better understanding of seismic activities around the globe, and to provide a center facility in Chile and countries in Latin America.
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SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The scope of the study will be an investigation and analysis of how to design seismic testing facility, as a result design a place for collaboration, cooperation, and investigation among scientist , teachers , students, and investors, can better understands the implication of seismic in the design, and construction of buildings, in which architects and engineers, as well as the public, have an interest in close professional interaction between the members of design teams. Adapting model processes of interaction to specific projects, and using common guidelines highlighting key seismic design issues needing resolution, may greatly facilitate communication within architect-engineer design teams.
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DEFINITIONS
Tectonics: The study of the earth’s structural features.
Divergent boundaries plate: A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving away from each other and new crust is forming from magma that rises to the Earth’s surface between the two plates. The middle of the Red Sea and the mid-ocean ridge (running the length of the Atlantic Ocean) are divergent plate boundaries.
Convergent boundaries plate: A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving toward each other. If the two plates are of equal density, they usually push up against each other, forming a mountain chain. If they are of unequal density, one plate usually sinks beneath the other in a subduction zone. The western coast of South America and the Himalayan Mountains are convergent plate boundaries
Jigsaw: (Engineering / Tools) a mechanical saw with a fine steel blade for cutting intricate curves in sheets of material
Subduction: A geologic process in which one edge of one crustal plate is forced below the edge of another.
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SUMMARY
This chapter presented, is an investigation and analysis of how to design seismic testing facility, as well, model processes of interaction to specific projects, and using common guidelines highlighting key seismic design issues.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
State of California
State Seismic Safety Commission
1755 Creekside Oaks Drive, Suite 100
Sacramento, CA 95833
Pages 2, 11-22
E. Reed, Richard, Living with Seismic Risk, strategies for Urban Conservation, (1977-American Association for the advancement of Science), (17-20)
Arnold , Christopher, Robert Reitherman. Building Configuration and Seismic Design. A Whiley-Interscience Publication. Toronto, 1982
Earthquake. www.usgs.gov/circular
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120413100901.htm
http://sirve.cl/en/noticias/news-item/all-ready-to-the-largest-u-s-seismic-test-involving-chilean-engineering/
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Chapman, Chris, Fundamentals of Seismic Wave Propagation Cambridge University Press, New York 2004 – 20-23
Datta, Tushar, Seismic Analysis of structures, Nodia, India, 2010
http://www.wyle.com/ServicesSolutions/TestEvaluation/Qualification-CertificationT-E/NuclearTestandEngineering/Pages/seqts.aspx
http://www.aeco.com/seismic.htmhttp://
www.dtbtest.com/seismic-testing.aspx
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APPENDICES
This is a list of earthquakes in Chile.
This list considers every notable earthquake felt or with its epicenter within Chile’s current boundaries.
Concepción February 8, 1570 9:00 8.3 MS 36.800°S 73.000°W Destructive tsunami.
August 3, 1962 4:56 7.1 MS 107 23.300°S 68.100°W
Taltal February 23, 1965 18:11 7.0 MS 36 25.670°S 70.630°W 1
Chile-Argentina border region June 18, 2002 6.6 M?
Near coast of central Chile June 20, 2003 9:30 6.8 M? VI 12.8 30.520°S 71.420°W Felt in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Tarapacá June 13, 2005 18:44 7.8 MW VII 108/117.2 19.895°S 69.125°W/19.934°S 69.028°W 11 Felt as far away as Santiago, Chile and Brasília, Brazil.
Antofagasta November 14, 2007 12:40 7.7 MW VIII 47.7/40 22.314°S 70.078°W/22.204°S 69.869°W 2 Felt at São Paulo, Brazil.
Antofagasta December 16, 2007 5:09 6.7 MW VI 57.8 22.914°S 70.060°W0
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Disrupted power and telecommunications throughout the epicentral area from Antofagasta to Iquique.
Tarapacá February 4, 2008 14:01 6.3 MW V 32.3 20.123°S 70.000°W
Offshore Tarapacá November 13, 2009 00:05 6.5 MW V 28 19.385°S 70.266°W 0[citation needed] Felt in Peru and Bolivia.
Drake Passage January 17, 2010 8:00 6.3[7] MW 10[7] 57.6713°S 65.9097°W[7] Offshore Maule/Biobío February 27, 2010 03:34 8.8 MW IX30/35 36.290°S 73.239°W/35.909°S 72.733°W 525 Destructive tsunami.
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